I got into a conversation with a friend yesterday about calendars and how we date things. I decided to dig up this paper and post it.
INTRODUCTION
The history of calendars and the customs related to them is incredibly vast. Even when the area of investigation is reduced to include only the lands of the Bible, this paper could only provide a brief investigation of the topic. Calendars that are of importance in a study on this topic should include the Jewish, Roman, Egyptian, Greek, Armenian, Babylonian, and Muslim calendars. It is also essential to note that these calendaring systems evolved over a period of time. Some of these calendars have both an ancient and modern form. Many have specialized modifications and calculations to keep them in sync with the seasons. Let us begin this discussion with the Jewish calendar.
THE CALENDARS
The Jewish Calendar
The Jewish calendar is referred to as a lunisolar calendar, based on both the lunar and solar cycles.[1] This type of calendar consists of months that begin and end with the new moon. Months listed in the Bible are usually numbered and not named. When names are used for the months, Phoenician names are used in the biblical books written before the Exile and the names used by the Babylonian calendar are used after this period.[2]
The Jewish calendar can have both an ancient and modern form. The ancient calendar is considered an observed calendar because of its use of the phase of the moon. A new crescent moon would be reported by reliable witnesses to the Sanhedrin. This ruling religious body would then sanctify the new moon and thus the start of the next month. The dissemination of these observations to communities outside of
Jerusalem was though beacons and couriers. As the Jewish people dispersed throughout the land this structure became unreliable.[3]
The modern form of the Jewish calendar is produced through calculations. These calculations are composed using days, hours, minims, and moments. In using the Torah, the holidays also must be calculated so that they may be observed in accordance with the religious laws. Some holidays required fasting, morning, jubilation, or feats.[4]
Both forms of the Jewish calendar include an embolismic, thirteenth, month to keep the calendaring system consistent with the seasons. The year length could vary between three different ordinary years and three different leap years.[5] The Sabbath was observed on the seventh day in every week as recorded in the Bible.[6] It is also important to note in the observance of the Sabbath that the day begins at sunset.
The Roman Calendar The Roman calendar was a fundamental part of the culture. Evidence of written calendars has been found in all areas of this society. The calendars were found prominent in art, religion, and politics. The calendar of theRoman
Republic consisted of 12 months. These months were Ianuarius, Februarius, Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Iunius, Quinctilis, Sextilis, September, October, November, and December. This length of this year consisted of 355 days and would fall out of line with the seasons. So the pontifices, a board of priests who were also politicians, would insert an extra month after the end of a shortened Februarius.[7]
This calendar was reformed numerous times most notably beginning with Julius Caesar. Some of these reforms were to get the calendar in line with the seasons and other regional calendar systems. Many revisions involved remaining months and years to honor authorities of the period.[8] The Roman calendar was replaced by the Julian calendar in 46 BC.[9]
The Egyptian Calendar
The Egyptian calendar can be traced through four eras; Pharaonic, Ptolemaic, Roman, and Christian. The Pharaonic calendar was divided into the three seasons of flood (
Nile), winter, and summer. The reckoning of months and years changed several times based upon kingdom reign and correlation with either the solar calendar or lunar calendars. The Macedonian kingdom of the Ptolemies retained its on calendar in addition to the Egyptian civil calendar.
With the Roman rule of Egypt came the use of a Greek fashioned calendar that had been adopted in
Rome at this time. This calendar is still in use by the Christians in Egypt and
Ethiopia today with only changes to the month names.
The Egyptian calendar is structured on 12 30-day months. Five days are added as needed within the year. With only changes to the month names, this calendar is identical to the Iranian and Armenian calendars.
The Greek Calendar
The Greek authority rested heavily in its city-state style of government and this held true in the calendar system used. Essentially each of the Greek city-states ran its own calendar. Different cities called the same months by different names. Each city-state celebrated the New Year independently. Both days and months could fluctuate between neighboring city-states. These differences could occur to keep aligned with the season, agricultural crops, or even for political reasons.[10] This not only made dates insignificant to people from another city but also added great difficulty as to recording history.[11]
As armies advanced through the Greek civilization, different calendars came into significance. Alexander the Great introduced the Macedonian calendar into the Greek city-states. This calendar consisted of continuously numbered, and not named, days of 1 to 30.[12]
The Muslim Calendar
The Muslim calendar is made up of 12 months and is a completely lunar system. It is one of the simplest calendars in the world because it is based on the new moon. This also makes the calendar one of the most accurate also. Like the Jewish calendar, the moon observation is to be made by reliable witnesses. In fact, the lunar indication of the holy day of Ramadan must be observed in the Islamic world and then e-mailed or faxed to areas outside of it. [13]
The year consists of 12 months of 29 or 30 day length. To keep the calendar in line with seasons, a 30th day is added to the last month in 11 out of every 30 years. The months have Arabic names.[14]
Modern calendars have changed in both Iran and
Turkey. In
Iran the calendar has gone to a solar based system. Months are based upon the earth’s rotation. Turkey now follows the Christian era calendar.[15]
Other Calendars
The Armenian calendar was made up of 12 months with 30 days each. Five days were added at the end of the year and called epagomenal days. This calendar did not allow for a leap day so the beginning of the year occurred earlier and earlier. The Armenian calendar was replaced by the Julian system and then again by the Gregorian.[16]
The Babylonian calendar first began with reference to the zodiac and position of the planets. It later stabilized into a system of 12 months with 30 fixed days.[17] These months began with the crescent moon. Months were repeated within a 19 year cycle to keep the calendar in sync with seasons. This calendar system was kept because of its superiority to other systems even when
Babylonia was defeated in war.[18]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Blackburn, Bonnie and Leofranc Holford-Strevens. The
Oxford Companion To The Year. New York:Oxford
University Press, 1999.
Weisstein, Eric W. Hebrew Calendar. Available from http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/HebrewCalendar.html. Internet: accessed 29 August 2004.
_________. Roman Calendar. Available from http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/RomanCalendar.html. Internet: accessed 29 August 2004.
_________. Babylonian Calendar. Available from http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/BabylonianCalendar.html. Internet: accessed 29 August 2004.
[1] Eric W. Weisstein, Hebrew Calendar. (http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/HebrewCalendar.html. Internet: accessed 29 August 2004).
[2] Bonnie Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens, The
Oxford Companion To The Year (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 722.
[3] Ibid., 722-3.
[4] Idid., 723-9.
[5] Weisstein, Hebrew Calendar.
[6] Gen. 2:2-3
[7]
Blackburn, 669-70.
[8] Ibid., 670-6.
[9] Eric W. Weisstein, Roman Calendar. (http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/RomanCalendar.html. Internet: accessed 29 August 2004).
[10]
Blackburn, 712.
[11] Ibid. 716.
[12] Ibid., 715.
[13] Ibid., 731.
[14] Ibid., 732.
[15] Ibid., 735-8.
[16] Ibid., 739-40.
[17] Eric W. Weisstein, Babylonian Calendar. (http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/BabylonianCalendar.html. Internet: accessed 29 August 2004).
[18]
Blackburn, 740.
